by Summer Gaines-Wheeler, SAFE/SART Policy Advocate
Secondary victimization, which is re-traumatization specifically caused by negative attitudes and behaviors inflicted by service providers, is a deeply troubling experience that survivors of sexual violence may face. It can be overwhelming for survivors to disclose their assault and navigate the criminal justice system. When survivors are not treated with respect and understanding by those meant to support them following an assault, it can leave them in a further vulnerable state. Therefore, it is recommended that service providers implement trauma-informed techniques when responding to survivors.
Background
According to the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 2023/2024 (2025), in Maryland, 57.2% of women experienced sexual violence; 24% experienced rape (completed or attempted); 28.8% were sexually coerced; and 52.4% experienced unwanted sexual contact. In the United States, more than 16.9% of men experienced some form of contact sexual violence in their lifetimes (NISVS, 2025). Although the exact number of reports of sexual violence is unclear, it is one of the most underreported crimes. It is estimated that less than 5% of sexual assaults are reported to authorities (Murphy-Oikonen et al., 2020).
What is secondary victimization?
Survivors of sexual violence may face numerous challenges after surviving an assault, including further emotional and psychological trauma. Many are re-traumatized when seeking support from service providers. This re-traumatization is often referred to as secondary victimization. The European Crime Prevention Network (2016) describes secondary victimization as “victimization that occurs not as a direct result of the criminal act but through the response of institutions and individuals to the victim. This includes, but is not limited to, not recognizing and treating the victim in a respectful manner, an insensitive and unprofessional manner of approaching the victim and discrimination of the victim in any kind.” Survivors may face negative encounters with legal personnel, law enforcement, investigators, medical staff, and other service providers.
The impact of secondary victimization
There are various ways these systems contribute to a survivor’s re-traumatization. Often, secondary victimization is caused by service providers when they engage in victim blaming behaviors, minimize or do not believe the survivor’s experience, and express negative judgements. It can also be a result of repeated or invasive questioning and denial of services. This leads to increased shame, worsened trauma symptoms, and unwillingness to engage in services. A common example is law enforcement asking questions during an investigation that can be difficult for survivors to answer, including questioning a survivor’s previous sexual history, how they were dressed at the time of the assault, asking if the survivor was intoxicated, or why they did not fight back. We understand it can be uncomfortable or upsetting to answer, however, they are necessary for investigators to thoroughly gather evidence and establish facts of the reported assault (International Association of Chiefs of Police [IACP], 2020). To mitigate the risk of victim blaming, law enforcement are recommended to explain their intent behind their questions and to use open-ended phrasing. The IACP (2020.) suggests using language like, “Do you mind sharing what you were wearing so we can add it to our inventory for evidence collection?” and, “Can you tell us if you were drinking or taking drugs at the time of the assault. We’re not investigating your personal usage. We’re concerned for your safety and about what happened to you?” This approach assists the investigation process while promoting the emotional safety of the survivor.
One study conducted by Rebecca Campbell and Sheela Raja (1999) evaluated a sample of licensed mental health professionals about the extent to which they believe rape victims may be further traumatized when engaging with social systems. They found that “80% of the sample agreed that contact with community professionals can leave rape victims feeling guilty, reluctant to seek further help, bad about themselves, distrustful of others, and depressed” (Campbell & Raja, 1999).
A study by Murphy-Oikonen et al., (2020) found that women who were sexually assaulted and reported the assault to police were hopeful that they would receive justice: “Instead these women were faced with insensitivity, blaming questions, lack of investigation, and a lack of follow-up from the police, all of which contributed to not being believed by the institutions designed to protect them.” Survivors are already dealing with the trauma of their assault, but having to recount it is difficult. Thus, when survivors are met with a lack of compassion and understanding, it can have a negative impact on their recovery.
The importance of trauma-informed care
Trauma-informed care, according to the U.S. Department of Justice (2024), involves understanding, recognizing, and responding to the effects of all types of trauma. It prioritizes physical, psychological, and emotional safety, and implements practices that encourage positive outcomes for patients and service providers in various systems.
Safety, trustworthiness and transparency, peer support, empowerment, voice and choice, collaboration, and cultural awareness are the core values of trauma-informed service providers. For example, victim advocates can put these into practice by providing opportunities for peer support and connecting survivors with support groups that align with their culture and identity. Law enforcement can use trauma-informed interviewing techniques to improve a survivor’s disclosure experience (Murphy-Oikonen et al., 2020). Forensic nurse examiners can practice patient-centered care and guide clinical decisions based on the survivor’s needs and values (U.S. Department of Justice, 2024). Moreover, proper training is critical for allied professionals so that survivors of sexual violence are given proper care.
Lastly, to be trauma-informed, people should know that not all survivors are the same. There is no such thing as a perfect or typical victim. How a survivor behaves during and after an assault is normal. In fact, many trauma-informed training includes discussion on the effects that trauma has on the brain, to better empathize with a victim. It is important for service providers to acknowledge this and respond to each survivor's unique and individual needs.
Survivors deserve to be met with compassionate care. Too often, they are faced with inadequate responses from the systems that are meant to support them. This results in secondary victimization (re-traumatization). And even when service providers are available to help, the nature of the criminal justice system can be distressing to a survivor. Trauma-informed care can reduce the risk of harm caused by secondary victimization. It enhances survivor autonomy and empowerment, and helps with the healing process. It is an ethical responsibility for all service providers to be trained on trauma-informed care and to carry it out in practice. Establishing trust and credibility within these systems may, in turn, increase the chances of a survivor coming forward and receiving justice.
Resources for Service Providers in Maryland
References
Campbell R. (2008). The psychological impact of rape victims. The American Psychologist, 63(8), 702–717. Retrieved here.
Campbell, R., & Raja, S. (1999). Secondary victimization of rape victims: insights from mental health professionals who treat survivors of violence. Violence and victims, 14(3), 261–275. Retrieved here.
European Crime Prevention Network. (2016). Preventing secondary victimization: Policies & practices (EUCPN Toolbox Series No. 7) [PDF]. EUCPN Secretariat. Retrieved here.
International Association of Chiefs of Police. (2020). Final design successful trauma informed victim interviewing. Retrieved here.
Leemis, R. W., Zhang Kudon, H., Zhu, S., Smith, S. G., Chen, J., Friar, N. W., & Basile, K. C. (2025). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2023/2024 Sexual Violence Data Brief (Data brief). National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Retrieved here.
Murphy-Oikonen, J., McQueen, K., Miller, A., Chambers, L., & Hiebert, A. (2022). Unfounded Sexual Assault: Women's Experiences of Not Being Believed by the Police. Journal of interpersonal violence, 37(11-12), NP8916–NP8940. Retrieved here.
U.S. Department of Justice, Office on Violence Against Women. (2024). A national protocol for sexual assault medical forensic examinations: Adults/adolescents (3rd ed.). Retrieved here.
